Gday...

1797  -             Bass departs Sydney to determine whether Van Diemen's Land is an island or part of the Australian continent.

The island of Tasmania, originally "Van Diemen's Land", was discovered by Dutch explorer Abel Tasman in 1642. It was thought to be part of the Australian mainland, though some seamen had their suspicions that it might be an island. Among them were George Bass and Matthew Flinders who, in 1796, together explored and charted the coastline south of Sydney.

The following year, Bass sought sponsorship from Governor Hunter to determine whether a navigable strait existed between Van Diemen's Land and the Australian continent. Bass departed Sydney on 3 December 1797, with six naval volunteers and an 8.5m long whaleboat. It was on this journey that Bass discovered the strait that is now named after him.

1800  -             James Grant discovers and names Mount Gambier in South Australia.

Mount Gambier, around which the city of the same name is built, is the remnant of an extinct volcano, located midway between the major capital cities of Melbourne (Victoria) and Adelaide (South Australia). Ancient volcanic activity is evident in the landscape of volcanic craters, lakes, caves and underground aquifers.

James Grant was a young lieutenant sent out on a survey voyage of the southern coast. Grant was given orders to take possession in the King's name of any large rivers and good pastureland, as long as such possession was done with the consent of any native inhabitants who might be present. On 3 December 1800, Grant discovered Cape Northumberland, naming it after the Duke who was British Commander-in-Chief. Beyond Cape Northumberland, he sighted Mount Gambier, naming it after Admiral Lord James Gambier, who had commanded the fleet at the Battle of Copenhagen.

1824  -             Hume and Hovell discover the Goulburn River, naming it the "Hovell River".

The Goulburn River is a significant river in the Australian state of Victoria. It begins near the western end of Mount Buller in the Victorian Alps, also known as the "High Country", and joins the Murray River near the town of Echuca. Discovered by the exploration party of Hume and Hovell on 3 December 1824, the Goulburn River was originally named the "Hovell", after William Hovell, who accompanied Hamilton Hume on the expedition to find an overland route from Sydney to Port Phillip.

Hume was a grazier who was interested in exploring south of the known Sydney area in order to open up new areas of land. However, he could not gain Government support for his proposed venture. William Hovell was an English immigrant with little bush experience, a former ship's captain who was keen to assist Hume's expedition financially, and accompany him. The expedition was set up, and Hume and Hovell departed Hume's father's farm at Appin, southwest of Sydney, in early October 1824.

Although the two men argued for most of their journey, and even for many years after their return, the expedition was successful in many ways. Hume and Hovell discovered many other rivers besides the Goulburn, including the "Hume River", which was later renamed by Sturt as the Murray River. The "Hovell River" was later renamed the Goulburn River after English statesman Henry Goulburn.

1854  -             The Battle of the Eureka Stockade is held near Ballarat, Victoria.

The Eureka Stockade was the rebellion initiated by the diggers on the Ballarat, Victoria goldfields in 1854. Conditions on the Australian goldfields were particularly harsh. The main source of discontent was the expensive miner's licence. It cost 30 shillings every month and permitted the holder to work a 3.6 metre square "claim". Licences had to be paid regardless of whether a digger's claim resulted in the finding of any gold. Frequent licence hunts, during which the miners were ordered to produce proof of their licences, added to the increasing unrest. Previous delegations for miners' rights had met with inaction from the Victorian government, so on 29 November 1854, the miners burned their licences in a mass display of resistance against the laws which controlled the miners. Following a massive licence hunt on November 30, Irish immigrant Peter Lalor was elected to lead the rebellion.

On December 1, the miners began to construct a wooden barricade, a stockade from which they planned to defend themselves against further licence arrests or other incursions by the authorities. At 3:00am on Sunday, 3 December 1854, 276 police and military personnel and several civilians stormed the stockade. It remains unclear which side fired first, but in the ensuing battle, 22 diggers and 5 troopers died.

Although the rebellion itself failed in its objective, it gained the attention of the Government. A Commission of Enquiry was conducted and changes were implemented. These included abolition of monthly gold licences, replaced by an affordable annual miner's licence. The numbers of troopers were reduced significantly, and Legislative Council was expanded to allow representation to the major goldfields. Peter Lalor and another representative, John Basson Humffray, were elected for Ballarat. Later, Lalor was elected Speaker of the Legislative Assembly of Victoria. For these reasons, the Eureka Stockade is regarded by many as the birthplace of Australian Democracy.

1971  -             Pakistan invades India as a result of the Bangladeshi struggle for freedom.

The British Empire once stretched into almost every continent on Earth. In 1947, Britain dismantled its Indian empire and partitioned the sub-continent, resulting in an eruption of tensions between India and Pakistan. Pakistan itself was divided by civil war after its 1970 election saw the East Pakistani Awami League party win 167 of 169 seats in East Pakistan and 313 in total, claiming the right to form the Government. However, the Pakistan People's Party, representing West Pakistan, refused to give premiership of Pakistan to the East Pakistan party, and called in the military, which was made up largely of West Pakistanis. Prime Minister of India, Indira Gandhi, openly supported the Bangladeshi (East Pakistan) struggle for freedom, and opened the Bangladesh-India border to allow safe refuge to the Bengalis in India.

On 3 December 1971, the border battles escalated into full scale war as Pakistan launched air raids on India. The raids were not successful, and the Indian Air Force launched a counter-attack, quickly achieving the military upper hand. The Indian Army, together with exiled Bangladeshi fighters, launched a massive coordinated air, sea, and land attack on Pakistan, gaining ground quickly, and forcing the Pakistani Army to retreat. On December 6, India became the first nation to recognise the new Bangladeshi government. On December 16 the Pakistani forces in East Pakistan surrendered, and agreed to a unilateral ceasefire.       

Cheers - John

Another good read John, so thanks for that

Re 1800 - James Grant discovers and names Mount Gambier in South Australia.

The water in the blue lake, is the bluest I have ever seen

It is on my list to show the wife

Gday...

1619  -             The first Thanksgiving is celebrated in America, before the Pilgrims ever arrived.

 Thanksgiving in North America is a day of feasting and celebration, and has been a tradition for hundreds of years. It is generally associated with the arrival of the Pilgrims, who had escaped religious persecution in England. During the late 1500s and early 1600s, religion in England was strictly dictated by the government. Anyone who did not conform to severe religious restrictions was subject to being punished by jailing, torture and even execution. Seeking escape from religious suppression, a group known as the Pilgrims left England on the ship Mayflower.

The Pilgrims arrived at Plymouth Rock in southeastern Massachusetts in December 1620, but due to hostility from the local Indians, moved to Cape Cod. The indians of this region, the Wampanoag, were friendly, assisting the colonists to survive in a strange land. The Wampanoag taught them optimum growing techniques, which differed from what they had experienced in England, and they also taught them how to hunt and fish. The following year, the colonists celebrated a successful harvest and their freedom with a huge feast, in what became known as Thanksgiving. The Wampanoag were invited along to this feast, and are believed to have supplied much of the food themselves, including venison.

However, the very first Thanksgiving actually occurred among a group unconnected with the Pilgrims. This festival was completely religious in nature, and no feasting was involved. On 4 December 1619, a group of settlers from England arrived at Berkeley Plantation on the James River, now known as Charles City, Virginia. In their charter, this group dedicated the day of their arrival as a Day of Thanksgiving to God. This was the first known Thanksgiving in North America.

1872  -             The 'Mary Celeste' is found abandoned, with its cargo intact, but no sign of its crew or passengers.

The Mary Celeste was a ship found abandoned off the coast of Portugal in 1872. Originally named 'The Amazon' when it was first built in Nova Scotia in 1861, the 103-foot, 282-ton brigantine was renamed the 'Mary Celeste' in 1869 after changing hands several times.

Early in November 1872, the ship set sail from New York to Genoa, Italy, under the command of Captain Benjamin Briggs. A month later, on 4 December 1872, it was found adrift and abandoned, yet its cargo of 1700 barrels of alcohol was intact. None of the Mary Celeste's crew or passengers was ever found. Theories have abounded as to what happened. The most logical was that the ship was hit by a seaquake, common in the Azores, where the ship would have been at that time. Evidence indicated that the quake had dislodged some of the alcohol barrels, dumping almost 500 gallons of raw alcohol into the bilge. The galley stove shook so violently that it was lifted up from its chocks, possibly sending sparks and embers flying. This, mixed with the alcohol fumes, could have caused the crew and passengers to fear for their safety. They may have taken to the lifeboats, but were unable to catch up to the brig when the quaking subsided. Regardless of the theories, the mystery endures as to why the 'Mary Celeste' was abandoned.

1942  -             Polish Christians risk their own lives for Polish Jews.

The Holocaust of World War II involved the mass slaughter of European Jews and others by the German-led Nazis. After Germany invaded Poland in 1939, Jews were forced into ghettos, transported to concentration and labor camps, or murdered in extermination camps. Jews were stripped of their basic human rights as homes and shops were confiscated and synagogues burned to the ground. The plight of the Jews were left largely ignored by the rest of the world, concentrating as it was on defeating the Germans and the Japanese on opposite sides of the Earth. Non-Jewish Poles could see the atrocities occurring within their own neighbourhoods but, with fewer rights under Nazi rule, many feared for their own safety and thus remained silent.

On 4 December 1942, two Christian women, Zofia Kossak and Wanda Filipowicz, put their own lives at risk when they set up the Council for the Assistance of the Jews. The fate of these two women, and the other Christians who joined them in their support of the Jews, is unknown. But their willingness to sacrifice their own safety, and probably their lives, is an enduring reminder that human courage and Christian ethics will prevail.

1953  -             Oil is discovered in Exmouth Gulf off the coast of Western Australia.

The first exploration drilling for oil in Western Australia was carried out in 1902 at Warren River in the southwest of the state. Traces of oil were located at various sites throughout western Australia in the ensuing years. In 1953, WAPET (West Australian Petroleum Pty Ltd) acquired the use of some remaining defence buildings after the the US Navy established a submarine and navy base in 1942 during WWII. From this point, WAPET commenced its oil exploration. On 4 December 1953, the discovery of a flow of oil in WAPETs Rough Range No. 1 well at Exmouth Gulf stimulated the growth of the state's oil industry.

Cheers - John

Interesting to learn of the West Australia's oil exploration.

Growing up on east coast you would only hear about Queensland oil reserves and then latter on Bass Straight, never WA.

Thank you for Today in History I look forward to the read each day.

Gday...

1901  -             American animator and film producer, Walt Disney, is born.

Walter Elias Disney was born in Chicago, Illinois, USA, on 5 December 1901. After serving with the Red Cross Ambulance Corps during World War I, he worked first as a commercial artist, then established his own studio, producing animated cartoons. After the company failed to turn a profit, Disney gained animation experience with the Kansas City Film Ad Corporation, working on primitive animated advertisements for local movie houses. He then established Laugh-O-Grams, Inc, which produced short cartoons based on popular fairy tales and childrens stories. When the company went bankrupt, Disney was invited to join his brother Roy in Hollywood, where they started the Disney Brothers Studio. The Disney Brothers Studio became the Walt Disney Studio in 1926, and then Walt Disney Productions in 1928.

Disney is best known for creating Mickey Mouse and Donald Duck, and for establishing the first theme park, Disneyland, in the USA. Disney currently holds the record for career Academy Award nominations, having gained 64 nominations. Among Disney's better known animated characters are Winnie the Pooh, Pinocchio and Ariel the Mermaid. Disney died from lung cancer on 15 December 1966.

1909  -             George Taylor, little-known pioneer in Australian aviation, achieves the first Australian flight of a heavier-than-air machine.

George Augustine Taylor was born in Sydney on 1 August 1872. As a young man, he trained as a builder and then worked as a cartoonist. However, emerging developments in science and technology began to capture his imagination. In 1908, he established a factory for the purpose of building light aircraft.

As a student and admirer of aviator Lawrence Hargrave, Taylor developed a keen interest in gliding. Inspired by Hargrave's experiments with flying using a box kite, Taylor built a biplane from coachwood, covered with oiled calico, and with a box-kite tail for balance. On 5 December 1909, together with Edward Hallstrom (later known for his developments in the manufacturing industry rather than his aviation achievements), Taylor launched his glider from the sandhills at the northern Sydney beach of Narrabeen, thus pioneering gliding in Australia. He conducted more than 20 flights that day, varying in distance from 100 to 250 metres, at heights ranging from 1 to 3 metres above the sand. Taylor's wife, Florence, also tried her hand at gliding that day, becoming the first woman to fly in Australia. She later complained that her biggest problem was her clothes, and having to tuck in her skirts as she flew.

Taylor went on to be an architect, engineer, founder and Secretary of the Australian Air League, and cartoonist for Bulletin and Punch magazines. He also founded the Wireless Institute of Australia, contributing much to the spread and development of wireless technology in Australia.

1933  -             Prohibition in the United States ends.

Prohibition generally refers to the time between 1920 and 1933 during which the Eighteenth Amendment was in place. The Eighteenth Amendment, forbidding the "manufacture, sale, or transportation of intoxicating liquors for beverage purposes," was passed by Congress and ratified on 16 January 1919. The ensuing Volstead Act, which made provisions for the enforcement of the Eighteenth Amendment, was passed on 28 October 1919.

Prohibition failed to enforce sobriety, and the federal and state governments lost billions in tax revenue. In 1933, the 21st Amendment to the Constitution was passed and on 5 December 1933, Utah became the 36th state to ratify the amendment, achieving the required three-quarters majority of states' approval. Whilst this ended national Prohibition, some individual states continued to uphold their own temperance laws. Mississippi, for example, was the last state to end Prohibition, doing so only in 1966.

1952  -             The Great Smog of London starts, lasting until March of 1953.

London has long been known as a city of fog and pollution, a combination which turned deadly on 5 December 1952. November 1952 had been considerably colder than average, with heavy falls of snow in southern England. Londoners had already been burning more coal than usual for heating. Being the end of Autumn, the city was also converting from using electric trams to diesel-burning public transport. The formation of an atmospheric inversion meant that the layer of cold fog filled with dirty particles was trapped by warmer air above. The smog was so thick that it reduced visibility for drivers, and Heathrow Airport was closed. The smog entered indoors as well, causing the cancellation of concerts, theatrical performances and even films, as the audience could not see the stage or screen.

Around 4,000 people died during the first week, mostly the very young, elderly and those already suffering from respiratory problems. However, as the weeks dragged on and the smog hung around, the death toll continued, with another 8,000 dying before the smog finally lifted the following Spring, in March 1953. The Great Fog altered perceptions regarding the dangers of London's "pea-souper" fogs. Whereas Londoners had always been complacent about their smog, new regulations were put in place restricting the use of dirty fuels in industry and banning black smoke. These included the Clean Air Acts of 1956 and of 1968, and the City of London (Various Powers) Act of 1954.

2013  -             Nelson Mandela, anti-apartheid campaign er and the first democratically-elected President of South Africa, dies.

Nelson Rolihlahla Mandela was born on 18 July 1918. Rolihlahla Mandela was seven years old when he became the first member of his family to attend school: it was there that he was given the English name "Nelson" by a Methodist teacher.

In his university days, Mandela became a political activist against the white minority government's denial of political, social, and economic rights to South Africa's black majority. He became a prominent anti-apartheid activist of the country, and was involved in underground resistance activities. Although interred in jail from 1962 to 1990 for his resistance activities, including sabotage, Mandela continued to fight for the rights of the South African blacks. He was eventually freed, thanks to sustained campaigning by the African National Congress, and subsequent international pressure. He and State President F.W. de Klerk shared the Nobel Peace Prize in 1993. Mandela was elected to the Presidency of South Africa in 1994. He retired in 1999, and died at his home in Johannesburg on 5 December 2013.

Cheers - John

Gday...

343  -   Today is the Feast Day of St Nicholas, or modern-day Santa Claus.

St Nicholas was born in Greece (now part of southern Turkey) during the third century. Brought up in a devout Christian family, Nicholas's parents taught him values of generosity and selflessness, practices to which he adhered throughout his life. He was known in particular for his generosity to people in need (he had a reputation for secretly giving to the poor), his love for children, and his concern for sailors who often worked under some difficult conditions.

Nicholas was persecuted for his faith under the Roman Emperor Diocletian, and died on 6 December 343. A legend began which stated that, after his death, manna (the nutritious substance God miraculously provided for sustenance for the Israelites during their 40 year desert sojourn) formed upon his grave. This manna was said to have healing properties, spawning a new era of pious devotion to Nicholas. The anniversary of his death became a day of celebration, and of course came to be known as St Nicholas Day.

St Nicholas was never actually officially canonised, as this was not a common practice in the early church. It was common custom in those days for his devoted followers to simply spread word of his generosity and righteousness, thereby creating a larger following. By the Middle Ages, he came to be venerated as "people's saint", and churches and villages were named after him. Thus, his "evolution" into sainthood occurred over a period of hundreds of years.

1784  -             Transportation of convicts from England to Australia is first authorised.

Conditions in England in the 18th century were tough: the industrial revolution had removed many people's opportunities to earn an honest wage as simpler tasks were replaced by machine labour. As unemployment rose, so did crime, especially the theft of basic necessities such as food and clothing. The British prison system was soon full to overflowing, and a new place had to be found to ship the prison inmates. The American colonies were no longer viable, following the American war of Independence. Following Captain Cook's voyage to the South Pacific, the previously uncharted continent of New Holland proved to be suitable.

The plan to send a colony of convicts and officers to New South Wales was first authorised on 6 December 1784. Within two years, the formal decision was made to send a colonisation party of convicts, military and civilian personnel specifically to Botany Bay, New South Wales, under the command of Captain Arthur Phillip, who was appointed Governor-designate. The First Fleet consisted of 775 convicts on board six transport ships, accompanied by officials, crew, marines and their families who together totalled 645. As well as the convict transports, there were two naval escorts and three storeships.

Transportation of convicts to Australia began when the first ship departed Portsmouth, England, in May 1787, and ended when the last convict ship left Britain in 1867 and arrived in Australia on 10 January 1868.

1797  -             George Bass discovers the Kiama blowhole, on the New South Wales coast.

Kiama is an attractive town and Local Government Area 120 km south of Sydney on the south coast of New South Wales, Australia. The name "Kiama" is derived from the Aboriginal word Kiarama, which means "place where the sea makes a noise". This is in reference to the famous Kiama Blowhole, a natural cavern at Blowhole Point. The ideal conditions in which to view the blowhole are when the seas are running southeast: at these times, the blowhole can erupt in a spray of water up to 60m in height.

Kiama was discovered by explorer George Bass on 6 December 1797 after he anchored his whaleboat in the bay which is now Kiama Harbour. Bass noted the evidence of volcanic activity in the distant past, and of the blowhole itself, he wrote: "The earth for a considerable distance round in the form approaching a circle seemed to have given way; it was now a green slope ... Towards the centre was a deep ragged hole of about 25 to 30 feet in diameter and on one side of it the sea washed in through a subterraneous passage ... with a most tremendous noise ..."

1813  -             George Evans discovers and names the fertile Macquarie Plains and the Macquarie River.

In May, 1813, Blaxland, Lawson and Wentworth had crossed the Blue Mountains, finding rich farming land in the Hartley region. However, further exploration was needed so the colony could expand beyond the Great Dividing Range. George Evans was the Deputy Surveyor-General of New South Wales, and keen to progress beyond the discoveries made by Lawson, Blaxland and Wentworth.

Leaving Sydney with a party of five men on 19 November 1813, Evans soon reached a mountain which he named Mt Blaxland, which was the termination of Blaxland, Lawson & Wentworth's explorations. He then headed southward into hilly country, and found a waterway which he called the Fish River, being abundantly full of fish. Following the Fish River west to its junction with the Campbell River on 6 December 1813, he named the large river formed by the union of the two smaller streams the Macquarie River, after Governor Macquarie. The plains surrounding the river were rich with lush vegetation, indicating fertile soil, and he named them the Macquarie Plains.

1907  -             361 miners are killed in the US's worst coal mining disaster.

West Virginia, USA, once had the reputation for the highest mine death rate of any of the states. Large scale coal operations began in Marion County, WV, in the 1880s. Between 1890 and 1912, regulation of mining conditions in West Virginia was poor, and the state's mining industry saw numerous deadly coal mining accidents. The nation's worst coal disaster occurred on 6 December 1907. 361 workers were killed when an explosion occurred at an underground mine owned by the Fairmont Coal Company in Monongah, Marion County. The accident was the catalyst to much of the movement that created the Federal Bureau of Mines, the first concerted effort to bring safer working conditions to coal mines.

1917  -             Over 1,800 are killed when the Mont Blanc, a French munitions ship, explodes after colliding with another vessel.

The port city of Halifax lies in the Canadian province of Nova Scotia. On 6 December 1917 it was the site of the largest man-made explosion until the first atomic bomb test explosion in 1945. The French ammunition ship 'Mont Blanc' was waiting to be let into the harbour, awaiting the removal of submarine nets that preventing enemy u-boats from entering the harbour. The Mont Blanc was carrying 2,300 tons of picric acid, 200 tons of TNT, 35 tons of high-octane gasoline, and 10 tons of gun cotton. A Norwegian cargo ship, the 'Imo', was waiting to depart the harbour via the Right Channel. As a ship was blocking its path, it moved into the Left channel, where the Mont Blanc was travelling. The Imo stopped as the Mont Blanc passed in the centre of the channel, but the backward action of the propellers brought the Imo to the centre, and the two vessels collided.

The collision set the picric acid alight. Twenty minutes later, a massive explosion occurred, completely destroying the Mont Blanc, and sending blazing metal projectiles into residential and industrial sectors of the city, destroying much of northern Halifax and leaving some 1,500 homeless. Many spectators who had ventured out to watch the fire were killed in the explosion, or in the tsunami generated by the blast, washing up as high as 18 metres above the harbour's high water mark. Approximately 1,000 people were killed immediately, and the total death toll was estimated to be over 1,800. Another 9,000 were injured, and of these, around 200 were blinded.

Cheers - John

To put George Bass's discovery of the Kiama blowhole into some perspective I reckon that the first man (or woman) to discover the blowhole probably did so 20,000 odd years before him. George Bass should get the credit for recording it's existence and making it public. The same with old mate George he may have named the Macquarie Plains and brought them to the publics attention but I doubt he was the first man to discover them. I am not trying to be politically correct here just putting some perspective around what we automatically refer to as being discoveries by Europeans.

Gday...

1782  -             A flying haystack, accompanied by fire and smoke, is reported in Banbury, England.

Through the ages there have been many reports of unusual flying objects, dubbed UFOs, or Unidentified Flying Objects. Many times, the incidents can be explained as weather balloons, military exercises and even natural phenomena.

On 7 December 1872, an unusual UFO was reported in Banbury, England. A haystack was seen flying through the air on an irregular course, emitting fire and dense smoke. Witnesses stated that at least 17 trees were uprooted and another 36 damaged, a long stone wall was felled as it flew past, whilst a shack was also disassembled.

Prior to the appearance of the fiery flying haystack, the skies were heavily overcast, leading to a sudden downpour. Lightning flashed, whereupon appeared the flying haystack, making a noise rather like a whistling steam train, travelling irregularly, sometimes high and sometimes low. A strong "sulphurous" smell was noted, which is often connected to ozone and nitrogen oxides, created by the effect of electricity on air. The object appeared to continue for around a mile and a half, when it suddenly disappeared.

Meteorologist, Mr Thomas Beesley of Banbury, visited the area and concluded that the haystack fireball was due to a tornado that swept through the area. It was believed that the appearance of fire came from the friction of tree branches as they were propelled through the air at a terrific speeds.

1800  -             James Grant discovers and names Portland Bay and Cape Otway on the southern coast.

James Grant was a young lieutenant sent out on a survey voyage of the southern coast of Australia. Grant was given orders to take possession in the King's name of any large rivers and good pastureland, as long as such possession was done with the consent of any native inhabitants who might be present. On 7 December 1800, Grant discovered Portland Bay, describing it as "picturesque and beautiful", and naming it after the Duke of Portland. He was unable to land, however, due to the windy conditions and strong surf. Sailing further east on the 7th, Grant sighted and named Cape Albany Ottway, after his friend Captain William Albany Ottway. The Cape, and later the nearby Ranges, were renamed Otway.

1846  -             Leichhardt departs Jimbour Station on his second but unsuccessful expedition.

Ludwig Leichhardt was born in Prussia and studied in Germany. He was a passionate botanist who had an interest in exploration, although he lacked necessary bush survival skills. In October 1844, he left from Jimbour Station on the Darling Downs on an expedition to find a new route to Port Essington, near Darwin. The trip took 14 months and covered over 4,800km.

On 7 December 1846, Leichhardt departed from Jimbour Station on his second expedition. His intention was to cross Australia from east to west. However, the expedition was beset with sickness, paper-wasp bites, and discontent among his men after travelling only 800km. The wet weather season set in with a vengeance, forcing the party to wade through deep mud. Six months later Leichhardt returned to Jimbour Station, achieving nothing of his aim. It was nearly another year before Leichhardt attempted the crossing again, this time disappearing with his entire party somewhere in the centre of Australia.

1941  -             Japanese fighters bomb the US navy base at Pearl Harbor, precipitating America's entry into WWII.

During the early stages of World War II, the United States willingly assisted Britain as one of its allies, but did not declare war on any of the countries involved. This changed on the morning of 7 December 1941, when the Imperial Japanese Navy launched a surprise attack on the Pacific Fleet of the United States Navy, stationed at Pearl Harbor, Oahu, Hawaii.

Tensions had been rising between the United States and Japan since Japan invaded Manchuria in 1931 and had continued to encroach on Chinese territory. Earlier in 1941, the USA and the UK reacted to continued Japanese military action in China by imposing boycotts on several industries critical to Japan, freezing assets and closing the Panama Canal to Japanese shipping. Peace negotiations between the US and Japan were unsuccessful, and Japan launched a pre-emptive strike against the US, hoping to gain the upper hand.

Six aircraft carriers launched approximately 360 Japanese warplanes, with the first attack wave occurring at 7:55am, local time. A second wave attacked an hour later. Further attacks by battleships, cruisers, and destroyers ensued. 2,403 Americans were killed, including 68 civilians, and a further 1,178 were wounded. Eighteen ships were sunk, including five battleships. Ultimately, the Japanese were successful in their aim of crippling the US navy. However, the attack pushed the US into WWII, and provided the catalyst and the motivation for the development of the bombs that destroyed Hiroshima and Nagasaki.

1967  -             Otis Redding records an unfinished "(Sittin' On) The Dock of the Bay", three days before his death in a plane crash.

Otis Redding was an American "soul" singer. Born in Dawson, Georgia on 9 September 1941, his singing career began in the Macon church choir. He was a devoted fan of singer Little Richard, by whose music he was largely inspired, even though Redding moved more into "soul" later on.

Redding had an immensely successful career, and was a prolific songwriter. While touring with his backup band, the Bar-Kays in August 1967, he wrote the first verse of "(Sittin' On) The Dock of the Bay" under the shortened title "Dock of the Bay". Further lines and additions were jotted onto hotel napkins and paper over the next few months. The first version of "(Sittin' On) The Dock of the Bay" was recorded on 22 November 1967, with overdubbing completed on 7 December 1967. One verse was whistled, as Redding intended to write more lyrics and complete the recording later.

On 9 December, Redding and the Bar-kays appeared on the local "Upbeat" television show in Cleveland, Ohio. The next day, his chartered Beechcraft 18 airplane crashed into Lake Monona in Madison, Wisconsin, killing Redding, his manager, the pilot, and four members of The Bar-Kays. The cause of the crash was never determined.

"(Sittin' On) The Dock of the Bay" was released posthumously on Stax Records' Volt label in 1968. It became Redding's only number-one single on the Billboard Hot 100, and was the first posthumous single in US chart history.

Cheers - John

Another good read John, so thanks for that

Re 1967 - Otis Redding records an unfinished "(Sittin' On) The Dock of the Bay", three days before his death in a plane crash.

I have heard his song, but I was unaware that he had died prior to its release

Back in the day, I was living in a very small town, with no TV, and only one radio station, so perhaps this event was not news in my area

I may be wrong (and I often am) but I believe that the 4 aircraft carrier fleet that attacked Pearl Harbour also attacked Darwin a few weeks later. Pretty brave of them considering Darwin at the time was really only was a small country town with limited defences.

Gday...

1542  -             Mary, Queen of Scots, is born.

Mary, Queen of Scots, also known as Mary Stuart, was born on 8 December 1542, daughter of Mary de Guise of France and James V of Scotland. When her father died on December 14, the baby Mary became Queen of Scotland but James Hamilton, Duke of Arran, served as regent for Mary. Mary's mother wished to cement an alliance with France, so arranged a betrothal for the young Mary to France's dauphin, Francois. At age 6, Mary was then sent to France to be groomed for her future role as Queen of France, which she took up in 1559.

As the granddaughter of Margaret Tudor, the older sister of Henry VIII of England, Mary Stuart was considered to be the rightful heir to the English throne. This was over Elizabeth, daughter of Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn, whose marriage was not recognised by many Catholics in England because Henry had unlawfully divorced Catherine of Aragon. Mary Stuart, in their eyes, was the rightful heir of Mary I of England, Henry VIII's daughter by his first wife.

Francois died on 5 December 1560, and Mary's mother-in-law, Catherine de Medici, became regent for his brother Charles IX. Mary Stuart then returned to Scotland to rule as Queen, but did not recognise Elizabeth's right to rule in England. Years of plotting and controversy followed as Mary tried to assert her right to the throne, with many conspirators on either side of Mary or Elizabeth being killed as they obstructed the way of the other. Ultimately, the attempt to place Mary on the Scottish throne resulted in her trial, which commenced on 11 October 1586. Mary Queen of Scots was executed on 8 February 1587, on suspicion of having been involved in a plot to murder Elizabeth.

1590  -             Sunspots are noted by sailor James Welsh in one of the few pre-Galileo observances.

Sunspots are areas on the Sun's photosphere, or surface, where the temperature is considerably lower than that of surrounding areas. The temperature difference causes these areas to appear as black spots which are sometimes visible without the aid of a telescope. The cooling effect is due to a strong magnetic field in a particular localised area which inhibits the transport of heat via convective motion in the sun.

Chinese astronomers have observed sunspots since 28 BC, but more modern viewings were few and far between. On 8 December 1590, sailor James Welsh of the ship "Richard of Arundel" observed a large black spot on the sun's surface, whilst sailing off the coast of Guinea. He noted that the spot was still visible the following morning.

The phenomenon remained largely unnoticed in ensuing years, until Galileo brought it to the population's attention in 1612, complete with likely explanation of how it occurred. It was not until the 1820s that the cyclic variation of the number of sunspots was first observed by Heinrich Schwabe. Later astronomers and scientists plotted the variations, leading to speculation on the effect of sunspots on weather patterns.

1801  -             Flinders explores and charts King George's Sound (later Albany) in Western Australia.

Matthew Flinders was born in Lincolnshire, England, in 1774. Flinders and George Bass did much sea exploration around Australia, adding to the knowledge of the coastline, and producing accurate maps. As well as being the first to circumnavigate Australia, Flinders, together with Bass, was the first to prove that Van Diemen's Land, or Tasmania, was an island and not connected to the mainland. Australia was previously known as New Holland, and after Captain Cook claimed the continent for England in 1770, the entire eastern half became known as New South Wales. Flinders was the one who first proposed the name "Terra Australis", which became "Australia", the name adopted in 1824.

Flinders charted the entire coastline of Australia between December 1801 and June 1803 in the ship 'Investigator'. On the evening of 8 December 1801, Flinders entered King George's Sound (later Albany) in Western Australia, to explore. He spent three weeks in the waterways, charting the coastline and determining what natural resources there could be used to facilitate settlement.

1980  -             Singer, songwriter and former member of "The Beatles", John Lennon, is murdered.

John Lennon was born John Winston Lennon on 9 October 1940. As his mother was unable to care for him after his father walked out, Lennon lived with his Aunt Mimi at Mendips throughout his childhood and adolescence. His mother taught him to play the banjo, retaining an interest in her son's life until she was killed in an accident in 1958. Lennon was a non-conformist who dropped out of school to devote his time to developing his musical talents. He joined up with Paul McCartney and George Harrison to form a band, taking the name "Johnny and the Moondogs", followed by "The Silver Beetles", which was later shortened to "The Beatles". Lennon is considered to be one of the most influential singer-songwriter-musicians of the 20th century, profoundly affecting the direction of rock 'n' roll music.

Lennon was assassinated by a deranged fan on 8 December 1980, as he and his wife Yoko Ono returned to their New York apartment after a recording session. The fan, Mark David Chapman, had earlier asked for, and received, Lennon's autograph on an album. It was the last autograph Lennon ever signed. Chapman later claimed he had heard voices in his head telling him to kill Lennon. Chapman has failed three times in his own bid for freedom, and remains serving a life sentence in Attica prison near New York.

1991  -             Leaders of Russia, Belarus, and the Ukraine meet to sign an agreement establishing the Commonwealth of Independent States, signalling the dissolution of the Soviet Union.

The Soviet Union, or Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), was a socialist state founded in 1922, centered on Russia, and regarded as one of the world's two super-powers, with the USA being the other. A model for Communist nations, the socialist government and the political organisation of the country were defined by the only permitted political party, the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. However, the increasing push for independence among the states, together with the gradual crumbling of communism in the 1980s, led to the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, to be replaced by The Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS).

On 8 December 1991, the leaders of Russia, Belarus, and Ukraine met in Belarus, and signed an agreement establishing the CIS. The CIS is a confederation now consisting of 11 former Soviet Republics: Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Russia, Tajikistan, Ukraine, and Uzbekistan. Turkmenistan, originally included in the CIS, discontinued permanent membership on 26 August 2005, but remains an associate member. According to Russian leaders, the purpose of the CIS was to "allow a civilised divorce" between the Soviet Republics. Sceptics regard the CIS as a tool that would allow Russia to keep its influence over the post-Soviet states. Since its formation, the member-states of CIS have signed a large number of documents concerning integration and cooperation on matters of economics, defense and foreign policy.

Cheers - John

Another good read John, so thanks for that

Re 1980 - Singer, songwriter and former member of "The Beatles", John Lennon, is murdered.

At the time he committed the murder, the (so called) unbalanced man, said that he wanted to be become famous, for killing a famous person

The do gooders are still on his side, and still trying to get him released from prison

Gday...

1843  -             The first Christmas cards are created.

The giving and receiving of Christmas cards has become a tradition throughout the world in the nineteenth century, with commercially-produced Christmas cards becoming more popular during the twentieth century. The earliest form of Christmas greetings were produced as gifts in Germany; they were called "Andachtsbilder" and were scroll-like greeting cards with devotional pictures, wishing the recipient "Ein gut selig jar", or "A good and blessed year". However, the tradition was not maintained over the ensuing centuries.

Sir Henry Cole, Director of London's Victoria and Albert Museum, found that writing numerous Christmas greetings to friends and colleagues was becoming a time-consuming task. He asked his artist friend, John Calcott Horsley, to design a card which could be used by Cole and also sold to the public. The first Christmas cards were created in England on 9 December 1843. Horsley produced 1,000 lithographed and hand-coloured cards. More like postcards, they sold for a shilling, which was the equivalent of a day's wages for a labourer. It was another twenty years before Christmas cards became commercially viable for the common man, following the invention of cheaper colour lithography.

1882  -             One of the earliest sightings of Australia's mythical 'yowie' is recorded.

The yowie is a mythical Australian creature, commonly frequenting bushland on the continent's eastern side, although the west is not without its sightings. The name "yowie" has come from the Aboriginal word for the creatures.

One of the earliest sightings of the yowie is recorded in a letter from naturalist H J McCooey in "The Australian Town and Country Journal", dated 9 December 1882. McCooey claimed to have seen the yowie in 1880, in an area of bushland between Ulladulla and Bateman's Bay on the New South Wales southern coast. He described the yowie as being about 5 feet high, and it stood on its hind legs as it watched the birds up in trees. It had long black hair which was reddish about its throat. Its eyes seemed small and were hidden by dirty, matted fur around its forehead. Its forearms seemed grotesquely long, though the rest of its body seemed to be in relative proportions. Repulsed by the appearance of the creature, McCooey threw a stone at it, whereupon it disappeared into a nearby ravine.

1941  -             Australia formally declares war on Japan.

On the morning of 7 December 1941, the Imperial Japanese Navy launched a surprise attack on the Pacific Fleet of the United States Navy, stationed at Pearl Harbor, Oahu, Hawaii. This one act changed the direction of World War II. Despite the success of the Japanese in their aim of crippling the US navy, the attack pushed the US into WWII.

An hour after the attack, Australian Prime Minister John Curtin declared that "from one hour ago, Australia has been at war with the Japanese Empire". Two days later, on 9 December 1941, at 11:15 am, Australian time (8:15 pm, December 8, American E.S.T.), war was formally declared. In part of his speech, John Curtin stated: "The Australian Government ... did not want war in the Pacific. The Australian Government has repeatedly made it clear, as have the Governments of the United Kingdom, the United States of America, and the Netherlands East Indies, that if war came to the Pacific it would be of Japan's making. Japan has now made war." With that declaration came Australia's involvement in the war on Japan.

1968  -             The computer mouse makes its public debut.

Douglas C Engelbart, born on 30 January 1925, was an American inventor. In collaboration with William Engliah, he invented the computer mouse. The first prototype computer mouse was made to use with a graphical user interface, in 1964. Engelbart's computer mouse was patented on 17 November 1970, under the name "X-Y Position Indicator For A Display System". Calling it a mouse because of its tail-like cable, it was simply a hollowed-out wooden block with two metal wheels and a single push button on top. It was designed to select text and manipulate it, such as moving it around.

The computer mouse was demonstrated for the first time on 9 December 1968, after being developed at the Stanford Research Institute in Menlo Park. The occasion was the Fall Joint Computer Conference, attended by about 1000 computer programmers and professionals. Engelbart's invention was revolutionary for changing the way computers worked, from specialised machinery that only trained scientists could use, to user-friendly tools that almost anyone could use.

1993  -             The first on-orbit service and repair mission to the Hubble Space Telescope takes place.

The Hubble Space Telescope was launched on 24 April 1990, by the Space Shuttle Discovery from the Kennedy Space Centre in Florida. The telescope was the product of a cooperative project between the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) and the European Space Agency (ESA). After launch, it was decided that on-orbit servicing every three years would be preferable to returning the Telescope to Earth every five years, as originally planned.

The first servicing and repair mission took place on 9 December 1993. The telescope was captured by the space shuttle Endeavour, and repairs were carried out by astronauts Story Musgrave and Jeff Hofman, travelling at 27,358 kilometres per hour, and 580 km above the Earth. Among other defects requiring repair, the astronauts corrected a fault in the telescope's mirrors which caused the instrument to transmit out-of-focus images of deep space, no better than images seen from Earth.

Cheers - John

Yowie

Around the mid seventies thou to the early eighties in my work asca long distance transport driver (a bxxxx truck driver) travelling from Sydney to Brisbane I heard lots of storys about the mythical yowie.

Using the coast road I would swing off a Grafton and go into Brisbane via the much quieter Summerland Way  Up in the Border Ranges between Woodenbon and Beaudesert there were regular appearances, some say they were tall in statue, unkept hair, very untidy and made grunting sounds. 

Never did like stopping up in that area, to spooky for this black duck to hang about.

Well one trip I had my lovely bride with me, it had been long day, throw in a couple of flats tyres to delay me, the load was not travelling as good as I would like and traps needed tightning as the load settle. It was getting late,  my driving hours were up, I was starting to get tried and I made the mistake of pointing out the damage the yowies had made, ran some stories pass her about the mythical creatures well was that not a big mistake.

When I parked the truck up in the Rangers near the Border, climbed into sleeper to have a sleep I copped both barrels, she would not rest, was not going to let me rest, she was not going to rest with the yowie about, no way.

We ended up resting in Beaudesert about hour away, you could cut the air in the cab of the truck with a carving knife that knife.

They might be mythical creature but there is people who swear they have seen them, what about the ones from a different tribe out at Kilroy, they even have a monument to him and he is for real.

Have good day, thanks for bringing the memory back.

Radar - I fully believe there could be yowies in those mountains you describe - if there are no other travellers on the Mt Lindsay Highway up there, it is so spooky driving around the "wedding cake" (Mt Lindsay, so called because of the shape - and there is rain or fog it is quite eerie!

Gday...

1520  -             German theologian and Christian reformer, Martin Luther, publicly burns a papal edict demanding he recant his doctrines.

Martin Luther was a German theologian and Augustinian monk whose teachings inspired the Reformation and deeply influenced the doctrines of the Protestant churches in general, and the Lutheran church in particular. Luther openly questioned the teachings of the Roman Catholic church, in particular, the nature of penance, the authority of the pope and the usefulness of indulgences.

The Reformation of the church began on 31 October 1517, with Luther's act of posting his Ninety-Five Theses, more fully known as the "Disputation of Doctor Martin Luther on the Power and Efficacy of Indulgences", on the door of the Castle Church in Wittenberg, Germany. The document contained an attack on papal abuses and the sale of indulgences by church officials. Controversy raged over the posting of the 95 Theses. Luther was excommunicated several years later from the Roman Catholic church for his attacks on the wealth and corruption of the papacy, and his belief that salvation would be granted on the basis of faith alone rather than by works.

On 10 December 1520, Luther publicly burned Pope Leo X's bull "Exsurge Domine," which demanded that Luther recant his heresies, including his doctrine of justification by faith alone. The following year, Luther was summoned before the Diet of Worms. The Diet was a general assembly of the estates of the Holy Roman Empire that occurred in Worms, Germany, from January to May in 1521. When an edict of the Diet called for Luther's seizure, his friends took him for safekeeping to Wartburg, the castle of Elector Frederick III of Saxony. Here, Luther continued to write his prolific theological works, which greatly influenced the direction of the Protestant Reformation movement.

1582  -             France adopts the Gregorian calendar.

The Gregorian calendar, widely adopted in the western world, was initially decreed by Pope Gregory XIII on 24 February 1582. The Gregorian calendar was first proposed by Aloysius Lilius because the mean year in the Julian Calendar was slightly long, causing the vernal equinox to slowly advance earlier in the calendar year.

On 5 October 1582, the Gregorian calendar was adopted for the first time by Catholic countries such as Italy, Poland, Spain and Portugal. On 10 December 1582, France began using the Gregorian calendar.

Non-Catholic countries such as Scotland, Britain and the latter's colonies still used the Julian calendar up until 1752, and some Asian countries were still using the Julian calendar up until the early twentieth century.

1859  -             Today is Proclamation Day, marking Queensland's official separation from New South Wales.

When the First Fleet arrived in Australia in 1788, the entire eastern half of Australia came under the name of New South Wales. The colony of Van Diemen's Land (later Tasmania) was established in 1825, and Victoria (Port Phillip District) separated from New South Wales in 1851. The first settlement in what is now Queensland was established at Redcliffe in 1824, and later moved to Brisbane. The first free settlers moved to the area in 1838.

In 1859, Queen Victoria signed Letters Patent, which declared that Queensland was now a separate colony from New South Wales. Queenslanders celebrate June 6 every year as Queensland Day, the day which marks the birth of Queensland as a self-governing colony.

Queensland actually separated from New South Wales on 10 December 1859, and this has now come to be known as "Proclamation Day". The western border was set at 141 degrees East. On this day, the new Queensland ensign, a light blue flag with a red St George's cross, and union jack in its upper left hand corner, was raised. On 1 January 1901, Queensland became one of the six founding States of the Commonwealth of Australia.

1878  -             Bushranger Ned Kelly robs the Euroa bank.

Ned Kelly, Australia's most famous bushranger, was born in December 1854 in Beveridge, Victoria. Kelly was twelve when his father died, and he was subsequently required to leave school to take on the new position as head of the family. Shortly after this, the Kellys moved to Glenrowan. As a teenager, Ned became involved in petty crimes, regularly targeting the wealthy landowners. He gradually progressed to crimes of increasing seriousness and violence, including bank robbery and murder, soon becoming a hunted man. Ned Kelly's gang consisted of himself, his brother Dan, Joe Byrne and Steve Hart.

One of Kelly's more daring bank robberies was carried out on 10 December 1878. Kelly and his gang rode into the Victorian town of Euroa, where they robbed the National Bank of about 2,000 pounds. As a result of this robbery, the reward for their capture was increased to 1,000 pounds each.

1896  -             Alfred Nobel, benefactor of the Nobel Prizes, dies, eight years after reading his own obituary.

 Alfred Bernhard Nobel, born in Stockholm in 21 October 1833, was a Swedish chemist, engineer armaments manufacturer and the inventor of dynamite. Although a dramatist and poet, he became famous for his advances in chemistry and physics, and by the time he died on 10 December 1896, he held over 350 patents and controlled factories and laboratories in 20 countries.

Eight years prior to his death, on 13 April 1888, Nobel opened the newspaper to discover an obituary to himself. Although it was his brother Ludwig who had actually died, the obituary described Alfred Nobel's own achievements, believing it was he who had died. The obituary condemned Nobel for inventing dynamite, an explosive which caused the deaths of so many. It is said that this experience led Nobel to choose to leave a better legacy to the world after his death. On 27 November 1895 at the Swedish-Norwegian Club in Paris, Nobel signed his last will and testament and set aside the bulk of his enormously wealthy estate to establish the Nobel Prizes, to be awarded annually without distinction of nationality. Nobel died of a cerebral haemorrhage on 10 December 1896.

The Nobel Prize is considered one of the most prestigious awards in the world and includes a cash prize of nearly one million dollars. The fields for which the awards can be given are physics, chemistry, physiology or medicine, literature and toward the promotion of international peace. In 1968 the prize field was extended to include economic science.

1919  -             Brothers Ross and Keith Smith win the Australian air race to fly from England to Australia in under 30 days.

The first powered flight in Australia was achieved by Harry Houdini while he was visiting Victoria, in 1910. 1912 saw the establishment of military aviation and the deployment of the Australian Flying Corps in World War I. In 1919, Australian Prime Minister Billy Hughes announced the Federal Government was offering a £10,000 prize for the first Australian to fly from England to Australia in under 30 days.

Brothers Keith and Ross Smith were two of the competitors. Ross, born 4 December 1892 in Adelaide was first pilot, while his brother Keith, born on 20 December 1890, also in Adelaide, was navigator and co-pilot. Both men had served in World War I. Together with mechanics James Jim Bennett and WH Wally Shiers, they departed Hounslow, England on 12 November 1919 in a large Vickers Vimy bomber on a 18,250 kilometre marathon journey.

The route took them across the Middle East, India and south-east Asia. They headed first to Basra, Iraq then on to Delhi, India. From there they continued on to Singora in Thailand, Surabaya in East Java, Indonesia and finally, Timor, from where they made the final crossing to Australia. Flying conditions were harsh and hazardous, as it was cramped and freezing in the open ****pit, with low visibility. The aircraft had to land frequently for refuelling, repairs or due to bad weather, and landing strips were often poor quality. However, the aeroplane landed in Darwin at 3.50 pm on 10 December 1919, well within the time limit specified in the race conditions. In all, the men spent around 136 hours in the air on a journey that took 28 days, flying at an average 137 kilometres per hour. Of the six other contestants in the race, only one other aircraft completed the journey.

The four men shared equally in the prize money. The Smith brothers were knighted, while Shiers and Bennett were commissioned and awarded Bars to their Air Force Medals. In April 1922, while preparing for a record-breaking around the world flight, Ross Smith and Bennett were killed in a crash. Keith died of cancer in 1955, and Shiers died in 1968. The Vickers Vimy bomber used on this epic journey is on permanent display at Adelaide Airport.

1997  -             Environmentalist, Julia 'Butterfly' Hill, commences living high in a redwood tree in California to prevent its destruction.

Julia "Butterfly" Hill is an American environmentalist who, at the age of 23, lived in a giant California Redwood tree to prevent it from being felled. Appalled by the destruction of the redwood forest in Humboldt County, California, Hill climbed into the 54 metre high, 1,000-year-old California Redwood tree nicknamed "Luna" on 10 December 1997. She lived there for 738 days, finally coming down on 18 December 1999. Her actions were designed to prevent loggers of the Pacific Lumber Company from cutting down the tree. She lived in a small 2m x 2.5m shelter that she had built with the help of volunteers.

Hill only agreed to come down out of "Luna" when the Pacific Lumber Company agreed to preserve all trees within a 3 acre buffer zone. In 1999, Hill and other activists founded the environmental organisation "Circle of Life", which continues to work towards preserving the natural environment. Hill herself became the youngest person to be inducted into the Ecology Hall of Fame.           

Cheers - John

1859 - Queenslanders don't celebrate it as much as New South Welshman do ...

Gday...

[delayed caused by being away from internet access ]

1792  -             Josef Mohr, who wrote the lyrics to 'Silent Night', is born.

Josef Mohr was born on 11 De­cem­ber 1792 in Salz­burg, Aus­tria, the illegitimate son of a seamstress and a military deserter. Mohr championed the cause of the poverty-stricken, the disadvantaged, the young and the elderly, and was a generous man who willingly gave his time and money to charity.

It was while serving as parish priest at St Nikolas Church in Oberndorf that Mohr penned "Silent Night", one of the world's most enduring Christmas carols. Two days before Christmas 1818, the bellows in the church organ were found to be rotted through. Mohr wrote a poem and asked the church organist and choirmaster, Franz-Xaver Gruber, if he could set it to music which the two men could sing, accompanied by Mohr on the guitar. Late on Christmas Eve, the men practised the song for the first time, and performed it for Mass. "Silent Night" still endures today as a much-loved Christmas carol.

1792  -             Captain Arthur Phillip, first Governor of the New South Wales colony, returns to England.

Arthur Phillip was born in London on 11 October 1738. He joined the Royal Navy when he was fifteen, and alternately earned a living as a navy officer and as a farmer. In October 1786, Phillip was appointed Governor-designate of the proposed British penal colony of New South Wales. He was a practical man who suggested that convicts with experience in farming, building and crafts be included in the First Fleet, but his proposal was rejected. The First Fleet left Portsmouth, England, on 13 May 1787, and arrived in Botany Bay on 18 January 1788. Phillip immediately determined that there was insufficient fresh water, an absence of usable timber, poor quality soil and no safe harbour at Botany Bay. Thus the fleet was moved to Port Jackson, arriving on 26 January 1788.

Phillip faced many obstacles in his attempts to establish the new colony. British farming methods, seeds and implements were unsuitable for use in the different climate and soil, and the colony faced near-starvation in its first two years. Phillip also worked to improve understanding with the local Aborigines. The colony finally succeeded in developing a solid foundation, agriculturally and economically, thanks to the perseverance of Captain Arthur Phillip.

Poor health forced Phillip to return to England in 1792. He departed for his homeland on 11 December 1792, sailing in the ship "Atlantic". Phillip resigned his commission soon after arriving back in England, and died on 31 August 1814.

1848  -             Edmund Kennedy is killed by Aborigines just short of his destination of Cape York.

Edmund Kennedy was born in 1818 on Guernsey, one of the Channel Islands of the English channel. As a surveyor, he arrived in Sydney in 1840 where he joined the Surveyor-General's Department as assistant to Sir Thomas Mitchell. In 1845, he accompanied Mitchell on an expedition into the interior of Queensland (then still part of New South Wales), and two years later led another expedition through central Queensland, tracing the course of the Victoria River, later renamed the Barcoo.

In 1848 Kennedy left Rockingham Bay, north of Townsville, with 12 other men to travel to Cape York, intending to map the eastern coast of north Queensland. A ship, the 'Ariel', was to meet him at the Cape at the conclusion of his journey. Dense rainforest and the barrier of the Great Dividing Range made the journey extremely difficult. By the time Kennedy's party reached Weymouth Bay in November, they were starving and exhausted. Kennedy left eight sick men and two horses at Weymouth Bay before continuing on with three white men and a loyal Aborigine named Jackey-Jackey.

Kennedy chose to leave the three white men near the Shelburne River when one of them accidentally shot himself in the shoulder. Continuing on with Jackey-Jackey, Kennedy was close to reaching his rendezvous with the 'Ariel' when he found himself surrounded by hostile aborigines. Their spears quickly found their mark with Kennedy, whilst Jackey-Jackey tried to hold off the Aborigines with gunfire. On 11 December 1848, Kennedy died in Jackey-Jackey's arms, signifying the tragic loss of a promising young explorer.

1903  -             The world's first wildlife preservation society is founded.

Fauna and Flora International, formerly the Fauna and Flora Preservation Society, was the world's first conservation society. It was founded on 11 December 1903 as the Society for the Preservation of the Wild Fauna of the Empire. Launched by conservationist Edward North Buxton, its many supporters included both influential people and notable naturalists, but also hunters who were concerned about preserving species for their past-time of hunting for future years. Membership reached 100 within the first year.

The primary aim of the Society was the conservation of habitats and species, and to influence legislation towards this end. Today, the Society still works to improve public education in matters of conservation. It is involved in captive breeding programmes specifically for the release of vulnerable and threatened species back into the wild.

1919  -             A monument is dedicated to the destructive Boll Weevil in Enterprise, Alabama.

The boll weevil is a small beetle, highly destructive to cotton crops. Native to Mexico, it began to infest the cotton crops of Coffe County, Alabama in 1915, creating wholesale destruction by 1918. The loss of the main crop in the area threatened the city of Enterprise, the economy of which was based on cotton farming.

H.M.Sessions was an enterprising businessman who saw the opportunity to convert the region from cotton to peanut farming. Together with farmer C. W. Baston, who was heavily in debt following cotton crop losses, Sessions invested in a peanut crop. The first crop was enough to clear Baston's debt, and attracted the interest of other farmers seeking rescue from their financial hole. The ensuing diversification of crops injected new financial prosperity to the farmers of Coffee County and the city of Enterprise.

Bon Fleming was a local businessman who suggested building a monument as a tribute to the beetle. Although the boll weevil wrought only destruction, its presence forced farmers to diversify. The monument was suggested to commemorate how something disastrous can bring about change for the better. The boll weevil monument featured a woman wearing a flowing gown, with her arms stretched above her head. Thirty years later, a boll weevil was added. The statue was dedicated on 11 December 1919.

Frequent theft and vandalism over the years saw the statue reduced to an irreparable state by 1998. The original statue was placed on display at Enterprise's Depot Museum, while a polymer-resin replica was placed in the statue's original position.

1931  -             The Statute of Westminster gives complete legislative independence to countries of the British Commonwealth.

Whilst the Constitution of the Commonwealth of Australia came into effect on 1 January 1901, this did not mean that Australia had achieved independence from Britain. Under colonial federation approved by the United Kingdom, the six self-governing states of Australia merely allocated some functions to a federal authority. Australia was given the status of a Dominion, remaining a self-governing colony within the British Empire, with the Head of State being the British monarch. The Governor-General and State Governors were appointed by the British government, and answered completely to the British government.

At the Imperial Conference of 1926, it was decreed that all Dominions within the British Empire were "equal in status, in no way subordinate one to another in any aspect of their domestic or external affairs, though united by a common allegiance to the Crown, and freely associated as members of the British Commonwealth of Nations." The Statute of Westminster 1931 ratified the discussions of the Imperial Conference. It meant that Australia and other Dominions such as South Africa, New Zealand and Canada could now conduct treaties and agreements with foreign powers, and manage their own military strategies. Ultimately, the British monarch could only act on the advice of the Australian Government, and the Governor-General was no longer appointed by and answerable to the British monarch.

Australian Parliament formally adopted the Statute of Westminster 1931 under the Statute of Westminster Adoption Act 1942, on 9 October 1942.

2015  -             Australian naturalist and controversial conservationist Harry Butler dies.

William Henry (Harry) Butler was an Australian naturalist and conservationist. He was born in a railroad construction camp in the bush near Perth, Western Australia on 25 March 1930. As a child, he spent a great deal of time exploring the bush with his aboriginal friends, as his father worked on the railways and his mother died giving birth to Harrys younger sister. He was a bright student who often pedalled 30km on his bike to the nearest primary school, and won a scholarship to attend high school. To supplement his scholarship, he hunted feral goats and wild rabbits for bounties. He was an early advocate of the release of targeted diseases into the bush to control introduced species.

Although Butler initially trained as a fitter and turner and then worked as a marine engineer, he completed a three year teaching course in a single year at Claremont Teachers' College in Western Australia. Later, he attended the Western State College in the United States. He spent a decade lecturing in biology and natural science in Australia, the US and Canada. However, his first passion was conservation.

In his role as conservation consultant to the Barrow Island oilfield and numerous other projects, Butler introduced radical new strategies to help conserve and restore the Australian environment, yet at the same time maintained that development and conservation was not mutually exclusive. He once stated, Ive achieved more by working with mining companies and other developers than I ever would have lying down in front of bulldozers. Although a controversial figure who was not seen as "green" enough by some conservation groups, his work with the Australian quarantine service was invaluable. A series of television advertisements featuring Butler were credited with reducing cases of illegally imported foodstuffs by 50%. Butler became a household name with the television series In the Wild, a tremendously popular documentary series in which he introduced the public to a variety of native animals which many Australians did not even know existed.

In 1970, Butler was appointed a Member of the Order of the British Empire, which was upgraded to a Commander level in 1980. In 1979 he was jointly awarded Australian of the Year, along with Neville Bonner, and in 1980, Citizen of the Year for Western Australia. In 2012 the National Trust of Australia appointed him a National Living Treasure. Numerous Australian fauna species were named for Harry Butler: among them were two fish; a marsupial mouse, the Carpentarian dunnart known as Sminthopsis butleri; six reptiles, including a species of Mulga snake, Pseudechis butleri; and the spider species Synothele butleri. Harry Butler died of cancer on 11 December 2015.

Cheers - John

Gday...

1815  -             Explorer James Kelly begins his circumnavigation of Tasmania.

Captain James Kelly was born in Parramatta, New South Wales, in 1791. He was believed to be the son of James Kelly, a cook in the convict transport Queen, and Catherine Devereaux, a convict transported for life from Dublin on the Queen. As a young man, he was inducted into the trades of sealer and sandalwood trader. At the age of 21, Kelly was enlisted to command the whaling fleet of Thomas William Birch of Hobart Town.

On 12 December 1815, Kelly embarked on a journey to circumnavigate Tasmania in the whaleboat "Elizabeth", with the view to exploring the commercial potential along the Tasmanian coast. Kelly is credited with officially discovering Port Davey on the south west coast and, late in December, of Macquarie Harbour on the central west coast. He discovered and named the Gordon River and Birch Inlet. Kelly's successful journey took 40 days.

1851  -             Today is Poinsettia Day in the USA.

The poinsettia (Euphorbia pulcherrima) is a plant, native to Mexico, with brilliantly red-coloured bracts in its native state. Newer varieties have also been bred, with bracts of different colours ranging from white through to lilac, pink and even spotted. Known sometimes as the lobster flower and flame leaf flower, the poinsettia has come to symbolise Christmas because of its bright red and green colours.

In the United States, December 12 has been set aside as National Poinsettia Day. The date marks the death of Joel Roberts Poinsett (2 March 1779 12 December 1851), an American stateman, physicist and botanist, who is credited with introducing the native Mexican plant to the United States. The purpose of the day is to celebrate the beauty of the poinsettia.

1882  -             Australias worst gold mining disaster, to date, occurs in Creswick, Victoria.

Creswick is a small town located in the heart of the central goldfields in Victoria, Australia. The town, which currently has a population of just over 3 000, was born after squatters Charles, John and Henry Creswick ran sheep in the area which became known as Creswicks Creek in 1842. The discovery of gold in September 1851 led to a gold rush, and the steady alluvial finds were boosted by the opening up of deeper workings in 1855-6. By 1861, the population of the town had swelled to over 5 000.

The Australasian Mining Company began prospecting for gold in the area in 1867, and enjoyed rich returns with the discovery of the Australasian Lead, one of five rich gold leads, or rivers of gold buried beneath layers of basalt, sand and gravel, that run through the area. A decade of regular flooding caused the Australasia No 1 mine shaft to be abandoned. The Australasia No 2 shaft was sunk approximately 200 metres away after the formation of a new company, the New Australasian Gold Mining Company, in 1878.

At around 5:30 am on the morning of Tuesday, 12 December 1882, water which had been accumulating in the Australasia No 1 mine burst through the wall of the reef drive, trapping 27 workers. Hearing the noise of the flooding above ground, water pump engine driver James Spargo increased the speed of the pump, and was quickly joined by two other engine drivers, James Harris and Thomas Clough. Over the next few days, the men ran the engines at more than 10 times their normal speed, trying to lower the water to save the trapped men. Unable to escape from the mine, the men sought respite from the rising waters in the small space of the No 11 jump-up, one of several cutaways where the men would jump up out of the way of the mine trucks. A special train was dispatched from Melbourne with equipment to dive into the water. Diving equipment borrowed from the HMS Cerberus, together with experienced divers, was sent up from Melbourne. It was Thursday (some sources say Friday) before the trapped men could be reached, and by that time, 22 had died. Only 5 were brought out alive.

This was not the only mining accident to occur in 1882: apart from the 22 who perished in this one incident, in the same year there were another 49 deaths due to mining accidents in the colony of Victoria alone. Following the Creswick disaster, 20 000 pounds was collected from townsfolk throughout Victoria to help the widows and orphans, with funds being allocated weekly to the families of the victims. Later, Parliament changed the fund to The Mining Accident Relief Fund Act, 1884, with moneys being paid to assist all victims of mining accidents.

1915  -             American singer and actor Frank Sinatra is born.

Frank Sinatra was born Francis Albert Sinatra on 12 December 1915, in Hoboken, New Jersey, USA. He is considered to be one of the most important popular music figures of the 20th century. As a musician, he was well respected for his gifted vocalisations, rich baritone and his versatile musical style. After making his foray into films, he became the unofficial leader of the Hollywood 'Rat Pack' of the early 1960s, which also included Dean Martin and Sammy Davis Jr. He appeared in 58 films, including On the Town (1949), From Here to Eternity (1953, and for which he received an Academy Award), Guys and Dolls (1955), Pal Joey (1957), The Manchurian Candidate (1962), and The Detective (1968). Sinatra died of natural causes on 14 May 1998.         

1917 - Father Flanagan founds Boys Town, a home for orphaned boys, in Nebraska.

Father Edward J Flanagan, born July 1886, was a Roman Catholic priest in the USA. In December 1917, three homeless boys in Nebraska were assigned to Flanagan's care. Unable to be supported by his financially struggling Parish, Flanagan found a house in Omaha, and borrowed $90 from a friend to pay the first month's rent. He opened the house to the boys on 12 December 1917, and, using the tenet that "There is no such thing as a bad boy", he continued to take in homeless and wayward youth.

After awhile, Flanagan moved the boys from the house in Omaha to Overlook Farm outside town, and in 1936 it was renamed Boys Town. As welfare agencies and juvenile judges passed more children into Flanagan's care, the farm came to rely on volunteers and contributions from the community to keep it running. It shifted from being a place for just orphans to one which took in children, including girls, who were in trouble with the law, or those who came from abusive situations. Possibly America's best-known orphanage/home, Boys Town has established satellite homes in Florida, California, and Texas and is a consultant to other homes in the United States. Similar homes in other countries have been founded on the original model set by Father Flanagan.

1953  -             Charles Yeager becomes the first person to travel two and a half times the speed of sound.

Charles Elwood "Chuck" Yeager was born on 13 February 1923 in Myra, West Virginia. After joining the army at age 16 and training as an aircraft mechanic, he was then selected for flight training. His service record during WWII was impeccable, becoming an "ace-in-a-day" after shooting down five enemy aircraft in a single mission. Yeager remained in the Air Force after the war. He became a test pilot and was ultimately selected to fly the rocket-powered Bell X-1 in a NACA program to research high-speed flight. On 14 October 1947 he broke the sound barrier in the technologically advanced X-1.

Yeager continued to work with experimental craft, achieving faster and faster speeds. He piloted the X1-A, a longer and more powerful version of the X-1, to a speed of mach 2.4 on 12 December 1953. This was almost two and a half times the speed of sound and the fastest of any human being to that date.

Cheers - John

Another good read John, so thanks for that

Re December 11 2015 - Australian naturalist and controversial conservationist Harry Butler dies.

As Harry said
Ive achieved more by working with mining companies and other developers than I ever would have lying down in front of bulldozers

Perhaps Harry was born before his time

I was unaware that he started out as a Fitter Turner, and then progressed to being a Marine Engineer, and then completing a teaching course

Gday...

1642  -             Dutch explorer Abel Tasman discovers New Zealand.

Abel Janszoon Tasman was a Dutch seafarer and explorer born in 1603 in the village of Lutjegast, Netherlands. In 1634 Tasman joined the Dutch East India Company and, after gaining further experience and promotions, was ordered to explore the south-east waters in order to find a new sea trade route to Chile in South America. On 24 November 1642, he discovered a previously unknown island on his voyage past the "Great South Land", or "New Holland", as the Dutch called Australia. He named the island "Antony Van Diemen's Land" in honour of the High Magistrate, or Governor-General of Batavia.

Tasman did not try to circumnavigate the island, but continued to sail east. On 13 December 1642, Tasman sighted a new land which he described as mountainous and covered in cloud in the south, but more barren in the north. He had discovered New Zealand. However, he also did not choose to explore further, assuming that the two lands were part of a larger continent. This fallacy persisted until James Cook explored the South Pacific, circumnavigated the two main islands of New Zealand, and then charted the eastern coast of the Australian continent.

1802  -             Charles Robbins successfully dissuades the French from making a claim on Van Diemen's land (now Tasmania).

Tasmania was first discovered by Abel Tasman on 24 November 1642. Tasman discovered the previously unknown island on his voyage past the "Great South Land", or "New Holland", as the Dutch called Australia. He named it "Antony Van Diemen's Land" in honour of the High Magistrate, or Governor-General of Batavia.

When the First Fleet arrived in 1788, Captain Arthur Phillip claimed the entire eastern coast for the British Empire, including Tasmania, though it was not yet proven to be separate from the mainland. In January 1799 Bass and Flinders completed their circumnavigation of Tasmania, proving it to be an island.

The British were keen to make a formal claim upon the island so that it would not come under the control of France. In November 1802, Governor King sent Charles Robbins, first mate of HMS Buffalo, to Van Diemen's land with the purpose of dissuading an impending French claim. In an earlier moment of indiscretion, French commodore Nicolas Baudin had revealed his intention to colonise Van Diemen's Land. Robbins sailed the schooner 'Cumberland', the only ship available at the time, arriving in Van Diemen's Land on 13 December 1802. He met Baudin and successfully persuaded Baudin to abandon his plans to claim Van Diemen's Land. Robbins's claim to Van Diemen's Land was reinforced by the landing of British troops on King Island in Bass Strait shortly afterwards.

Robbins himself found Robbins Island, a small island off the northwest coast of Van Diemen's Land, in 1804. It was subsequently named in his honour.

1850  -             Cleveland in southeast Queensland is proclaimed a township.

Cleveland is a suburb of Redland City, which lies sandwiched between the boundaries of Brisbane and the Gold Coast in southeast Queensland. Originally known as Nandeebie by the indigenous Koobenpul people, the area was first settled by Europeans in the 1820s, after being discovered by ticket-of-leave convicts Parsons, Pamphlett and Finnegan who had been blown off-course by a wild storm near the Illawarra coast of NSW. Believing they were south of Port Jackson, the men headed north, where they reached Moreton Bay and island-hopped to the mainland. Here, near the Brisbane River, they were eventually rescued by explorer John Oxley who was surveying the area as the site for a possible penal settlement. Redcliffe became the first settlement in the new Colony of the Moreton Bay District, followed by Brisbane, named after the Brisbane River, which in turn was named after Governor Brisbane, then the Governor of New South Wales.

Settlement south of Brisbane began with farming allotments, as the area was rich in volcanic soil. Cleveland, still known as Emu Point, was an important port for small boats in the region, and a strong contender for being a future capital city whenever the colony separated from New South Wales. This was quashed in 1842 when Governor Gipps attempted to come ashore at Emu Point and ended up floundering in the mud and mangroves because his ship was too large to dock. The bay proved to be too shallow to be a major port in the future. The area was renamed Cleveland by surveyors, in honour of William Vane, the 1st Duke of Cleveland.

On 13 December 1850, Cleveland was proclaimed a township, and soon became a popular seaside resort. Two buildings from the 1850s, the Courthouse (now a restaurant) and the Grand View Hotel, still remain as testimony to Clevelands heritage.

1858  -             The first balloon flight in Sydney, Australia, takes place.

The hot air balloon was developed in the 1700s by Frenchman Jacques Étienne Montgolfier, together with his brother Joseph-Michel. Montgolfier progressed to untethered flights until 1783 when he tested the first balloon to carry passengers, using a duck, a sheep and a rooster as his subjects. The demonstration occurred in Paris and was witnessed by King Louis XVI. The first manned, untethered balloon flight occurred on November 21 of that year, and carried two men.

The first balloon flight in Australia occurred on 1 February 1858. Constructed in the UK, the balloon was imported into Australia by the manager of Melbourne's Theatre Royal, George Coppin. The launch took place at Cremorne Gardens near Richmond. William Dean lifted off at 5:52pm and landed near Heidelberg at around 6:30pm. Two weeks later, Dean again lifted off, this time reaching an estimated altitude of 10,000 feet before descending onto the road between Collingwood and Brunswick Stockade.

William Dean was also the first to fly in a balloon from Sydney. Together with his companion, Brown, they launched at 5:00pm on 13 December 1858, witnessed by 7,000 people. The balloon drifted north across Sydney Harbour and landed in Neutral Bay. However, it was not until the 1870s that balloon flights became more commonplace in Australia.

1937  -             Nanking, capital of China, falls to the brutal Japanese imperial forces.

Prior to World War II, Japan began a systematic invasion of Chinese territory, beginning with Manchuria in 1931. In the ensuing years, thousands of refugees fled Manchuria and settled in Nanking, or Nanjing, swelling the population of the city from 250,000 residents to over one million. In July 1937, Japan attacked China again, this time near Beijing. The Chinese government did not retreat as it had before, but declared war on Japan, marking the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War, which soon became another facet of World War II.

To break the spirit of Chinese resistance, Japanese General Matsui Iwane ordered that the city of Nanking be destroyed. On November 25, Japanese forces began attacking Nanking in earnest. Then, on 13 December 1937, the Japanese Imperial Army marched into Nanking and commenced a massacre that continued for six weeks. In what became known as the "Rape of Nanking," the Japanese butchered an estimated 150,000 male "war prisoners," massacred an additional 50,000 male civilians, and raped between 20,000 and 80,000 women and girls of all ages, often mutilating, disembowelling or killing them in the process. Some figures suggest that 300,000 innocent Chinese died during the carnage.

It is estimated that during the Japanese occupation of China, at least fifteen million Chinese soldiers and civilians were killed. The city of Nanking still sombrely commemorates the atrocities committed by the Japanese army upon its citizens. After World War II, Matsui was found guilty of war crimes by the International Military Tribunal for the Far East, and executed.

1955  -             Australian housewife "superstar", Dame Edna Everage, makes her stage debut.

Dame Edna Everage is the brainchild and ostentatious alter-ego of Australian actor Barry Humphries. The Moonee Ponds housewife, originally created as a parody of Australian suburban insularity, has developed from her earlier dowdiness to become a satire of stardom, the gaudily dressed, ostentatious, international Housewife Gigastar with outrageous glasses.

Barry Humphries was born on 17 February 1934 in Melbourne, Australia. He studied law, philosophy and fine arts at Melbourne University before joining the Melbourne Theatre Group and embarking on an acting career. He created the character of Edna Everage who made her Australian debut at Melbourne's Union theatre on 13 December 1955. Humphries brought her to the British stage in 1969 for his one-man show, "Just a Show". In 1970 Barry returned to Australia, where Edna Everage made her movie debut in John B Murray's The Naked Bunyip.

Humphries has ensured his creation has kept up with the latest technology. Dame Edna now has her own website, dame-edna.com, where fans can find the latest tour dates, merchandise and information about Australia's favourite housewife.

1975  -             Malcolm Fraser's Liberal Party wins a landslide 55-seat majority victory over the ALP.

Edward Gough Whitlam, elected in 1972 to be the 21st Prime Minister of Australia, had embarked on a massive legislative social reform program which was forward-thinking and progressive in many ways. Whilst initially popular, the fast pace of reform engendered caution amongst the electorate, and the economy was beset by high inflation combined with economic stagnation.

These conditions were the catalyst to the Australian constitutional crisis of 1975. The opposition Liberal-National Country Party coalition held a majority in the Senate, the upper house of Parliament. In an unprecedented move, the Senate deferred voting on bills that appropriated funds for government expenditure, attempting to force the Prime Minister to dissolve the House of Representatives and call an election. The Whitlam government ignored the warnings, and sought alternative means of appropriating the funds it needed to repay huge debts. With Whitlam unable to secure the necessary funds, the Governor-General, Sir John Kerr, dismissed Whitlam as Prime Minister on 11 November 1975, and appointed Liberal opposition leader Malcolm Fraser as caretaker Prime Minister.

This was done on the condition that Fraser would seek a dissolution of both the House of Representatives and the Senate, thus precipitating a general election. Formal elections were held on 13 December 1975, and Fraser's Liberal Party won a massive 55-seat majority victory over the Australian Labor Party.          

Cheers - John

Re 1975 - Malcolm Fraser's Liberal Party wins a landslide 55-seat majority victory over the ALP.

No political statement intended

But...

This woke up a lot of political innocents such as myself, to the fact that politics is a dirty game, and that some politicians were not worthy of the power we had bestowed on them

I thought that the double dissolution was just a dirty tactic

Gday...

Yep Tony ... Whitlam made many long overdue excellent reforms .. but then his colleagues lost the plot, Whitlam lost control (influence) of them ... many foolish actions .. and the public got frightened of them.

The Double D was the last straw - and the populous reacted predictably.

Now back to non-politics.

Cheers - John